Question answering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Question answering - Essay Example In other words, the car dealer cannot get away with this contract even though John is not capable of entering into binding contracts. However, John’s incapacity to enter into a binding contract is subject to four exceptions, which the car dealer can cite if they have enough prove. These include the following: i. Beneficial contracts such as employment ii. Contracts involving necessaries iii. Contracts involving company shares, land, marriage, and partnerships except if they are voidable iv. Contracts that are approved by a child after attaining the age of the majority. Among these exceptions, the dealer can only try to argue in line with the second one, though it will still be very hard to convince the court that the contract involved necessary goods. It is clear that John believed that a car is a necessity, which perhaps was due to the influence he got from Facebook and his friends. This fact can hardly make the contract binding on the child, because the law considers them in capable of making valid decisions on their own. Therefore, the court will argue that John could not be relied to decide, by himself, what is a necessity. On this ground, therefore, the car dealer is not likely to get any reprieve from the exceptions. Another provision of the law is that a contract involving a minor is voidable. This means that, prior to reaching the age of the majority; a child has the freedom to withdraw any contract. Even though John does not have any justifiable reasons to cancel the contract, the car dealer will still lose the case because the law allows minors to do so on a whim if it is advantageous for them to do so (Hugh 256). The reason why the car dealer was cautious on entering into a contract with a child was because he feared the consequences if the child breached the contract. His instinct was correct, however, he did a mistake when he at last accepted to sign the contract even after the child’s parent declined to co-sign the loan. All in all, i f the parent had agreed to co-sign the loan; this could not have given him a complete reprieve. The best strategy was to ask the minor to let his parent sign the full loan on his behalf, since parents are not legally responsible on contracts entered by their children unless when they are acting as their agent.1 Therefore, John will win in his bid to get the contract invalidated by the court and recover the $500, down payment. Question two: a contract with an illegal purpose Smuggling is an illegal activity and it is against the interest of the public, therefore, any suit regarding this case will face many hurdles as the court does not condone participation in illegal activities. Smuggling is under a class of illegal contracts, which are unenforceable as they imposes no obligations and creates no rights on the parties who are involved. In an illegal contract, losses and gains remain where they have fallen because money and assets changing hands are not recoverable. The court’s idea is that illegal contracts are undesirable in the eyes of the public and hence, they do not disserve assistance considering they do not contribute towards well-being of individuals in the society.2 Therefore, the court will refuse to help the mechanic enforce their contract with Jack and will also not give any

Bicycle Lanes are Overdue in Dallas Essay Example for Free

Bicycle Lanes are Overdue in Dallas Essay Bicycles have been a major part of our transportation system for over a hundred years. There are more than a billion bicycles in the world and they outnumber the automobile 2:1. Yet in Dallas, we have been very slow to take steps that would make them an integral part of our transportation system. Bike lanes and the lack of them are an excellent example. Texans have always prided themselves on their wide open spaces and have long had a love affair with their cars. This may partially explain why Dallas has not made a priority of alternative means of getting around town. However, with changes in the economy and the environment, the city would be well served to start looking at all options for commuting. Dependence on foreign oil has made gas-guzzling cars both an economic and a foreign policy matter. And the pollution that these cars generate affects not only us, but the world as a whole. Bike lanes are a way to encourage people to be less dependent on their cars. First, where are we starting from? Since 1980, while other cities added hundreds of miles of bike lanes, Dallas chose to sit idly by. According to Bike Friendly Oak Cliff, â€Å"by the 2000s, Dallas had one of the lowest bike-commuting percentages in the nation, and one of the highest accident rates. The publication twice gave Dallas the ignominious title of worst cycling city in the United States, in 2008 and 2012† (Roberts). Opponents of bike lanes point to our current traffic congestion and wonder how taking lanes away from cars can possibly improve the situation. First, a bike lane frequently does not require the removal of an automobile lane. It can be accomplished by narrowing existing auto lanes, using median space, and other techniques. Second, while some auto lanes are inevitably lost, this is offset by the fact that there are fewer automobiles on the roads, because their former occupants are now on bicycles using the bike lanes. A model for urban planning and traffic management that was popular in the 1950’s through the 1980’s was to simply build more freeways and build more parking in the central business district. Dallas was a poster child for this model. This was the thinking behind the construction of the Dallas North Tollway and the Central Expressway expansion. It was thought that if we added enough freeway capacity and parking capacity that traffic problems would be a thing of the past. But what is seen in Dallas today is what has been discovered everywhere else. By building more capacity, more cars simply come in to take up that space and the system is overwhelmed again. But we continue to pursue that same model, as evidenced by the current LBJ/635 expansion and the â€Å"Horseshoe† project slated to begin later this year and go through 2017 to expand the â€Å"canyon† in downtown Dallas. While freeway expansions are inevitable and to some degree necessary, what is needed is a fundamental change in the way we approach getting around town. Bicycles, walking, public transportation, shared rides are all things that citizens should consider when it is available as an option. The city has a responsibility to make alternatives to automobile travel available to us. And they have done a fairly good job with Dart  and Dart  rail, and are aggressively expanding the hike and bike trails. But the first bike lane was not painted until September, 2012. The city is grudgingly making progress. They unveiled CentraLink, a network of bike lanes in the central business district designed to connect the downtown area hike/bike trails with Union Station and the Jefferson Cycle Track. The city has announced plans to add 70 miles of bike lanes by the end of 2014, but after that, according to the Dallas Observer, â€Å"things get murky† (Nicholson). Bicycle commuting is great for a person’s health, the environment, and saves the commuter money. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average US household spent 15. 7 percent of their total income on automotive expenses in 2011 (USDL). Contrary to popular belief, bike lanes are not necessarily expensive to implement. It can usually be accomplished when a street is undergoing its regularly scheduled repairing and restriping. Bike Friendly Oak Cliff indicates that there are a variety of funding methods used when there is a need for build out, including Tax Increment Financing Districts, Federal Grants, and â€Å"Friends of† organizations (Roberts). They go on to point out that the return on investment for streets with bike lanes and businesses surrounding these streets has proven to far offset any cost. It is important to remember that the purpose of building roads is not to move people as quickly as possible (as is the case with highways), it is to promote interaction between individuals and businesses, as well as ransport. Commuting by bicycle is an option that more and more people are choosing every year for a variety of reasons. Bike lanes are a reasonable way that the city can accommodate these citizens and provide a safe way for them to exercise this choice. It is incumbent on the leaders of this city to think beyond the initial cost of the project and allow Dallas to realize the benefits tha t this will bring to the city and its citizens.

Impact of Ecotourism on the Local Population of Cameroon

Impact of Ecotourism on the Local Population of Cameroon EXPLORING THE SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ECOTOURISM ON THE LOCAL POPULATION OF CAMEROON. ABSTRACT The ecotouristic sector in Cameroon is a growing but relatively minor industry. Cameroons wildlife draws both safari-goers and big-game hunters, as Cameroon is home to many of Africas iconic animals: cheetahs, chimpanzees, elephants, giraffes, gorillas, hippopotami, and rhinoceroses. Impediments to further growth of the eco-touristic sector include poor transport infrastructure and corrupt officials who may harass visitors for bribes. Ecotourism can and is however making a substantial contribution to development, and in combating poverty even though not without its own problems. Many studies report on the general impacts of the sector in developing countries, whether social, cultural, economic, or environmental. However, the sector can sometimes be discredited as being less pro poor. Corrupt officials often embezzle most of the funds that flow into the sector. As a consequence of the above, the paper will explore some of the consequences of ecotourism on the socio-cultural and environment. As an Anthropologists, I will not fall into the trap of judging the sector but what is worth noting here is the fact that for the sector to be successful there need to be some kind of social amenities and attraction parks. INTRODUCTION Research on tourism in developing countries has mostly focused on the general economic, environmental and socio-cultural consequences of the sector. This sector has many potentially beneficial impacts to locals, but in practice these have been frequently outweighed by the negative consequences for local people of many African countries especially Cameroon due to poor management systems and corrupt officials. There are several forms of tourism and reasons of tourism. They vary across cultures and depend on the particular individual or groups involved with tourist activities. For the purpose of time, this paper is going to focus more on ecotourism. Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the wellbeing of local people. â€Å"Travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strive to be low impact and (usually) small scale. It helps educate the traveler, provides funds for conservation, directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, and foster respect for different cultures and for human rights† (Honey 1995:25) This form of tourism is usually intended to protect the environment, have revenues to protect the environment and finally to support local communities. There are some criticisms that surround this form of tourism as to whether it is actually sustainable and if locals a re actually the beneficiaries. There are various definitions of ecotourism that have been provided by many scholars but this paper will briefly provide a few that are very vital to the analysis of the paper. Tikell (1994), defines ecotourism as travel to enjoy the worlds amazing diversity of natural life and human culture without causing damage either. Ecotourism is tourism and recreation that is both nature-based and sustainable.(Lindberg and McKercher, 1997) What is worth noting from the above definitions and other scholarly definitions is the fact that ecotourism is nature based and the idea of sustainability features in most of the definitions as well. This goes a long way to stress on the importance of nature to human beings and also the fact that it needs to be preserved for future generations. Ecotourism is also considered one of the worlds fastest growing tourism sub-market. This growth has been promoted by Europeans and north Americans to almost all parts of the world either for leisure or for the purpose of studies. Cameroon is a potential tourist destination owing to its rich touristic potentials such as the natural bright sandy beaches of Kribi in the South and Limbe in the South West provinces of Cameroon, equally its natural priority of hosting several animal species like the, red tail monkeys, giraffes, lions and giant elephants which roam the savannah. The bongo antelopes and massive western lowland gorillas, chimpanzees survive in this primeval woodlands with monkeys, baboons, elephants, hippopotamus and forest buffalos that are almost extinct in certain parts of the world, it harbors different bird species. Cameroon is blessed with abundant, diverse forest and wildlife on the continent of Africa, Nature reserve cover almost 15 percent of Cameroon 475,442km2,an eventual national goal of 20% has been set by law; These include seven National parks, three world Biosphere reserves and one United Nation world Heritage site but the most unfortunately thing is that they are not adequately protected some have seriously deteriorated due to lack of funds and mismanagement, poaching and official corruption. Forest have been sold off to foreign interest for ecologically unsustainable logging with no benefit to the local people while plundering of rare animals through sales of bush meat has grown and the crime rate has soared, the situation may change with increasing awareness of economic benefits of ecotourism dependent on healthy parks and reserves. The Ministry of Forest and Wildlife in Cameroon has been struggling to put on a legislation to kind of regulate the activities of local communities liv ing around national parks and game reserves. The conservation scheme empowering the Baaka pygmies of the East and South of Cameroon thus is a seldom success story. The nation which has a large number of potential tourist destinations due to its rich nature has been plagued by a poor political will for closed to two and a half decades now. The rainforest reserve however escape some of these disruption by the political power that be and is turning into one of the Cameroons main and few tourist destination. Not leaving out the too many ‘romantic things Africa has to offer such as pre-historic paintings, the African night sky, a unique rhythm of life all these experiences abound in Cameroon and that is the reason why Cameroon is referred to as Africa miniature because it has a little bit of what exist in the whole of Africa ADVANTAGES OF ECOTOURISM TO THE LOCAL PEOPLE The value of plants used for medicinal purposes by local communities can be calculated on the basis of their possible future value on the global market. Ecological economics, a field that addresses the relationship between ecological and economic systems focusing on environmental policy and sustainable development (Constanza 1989) Intrinsic value is a much more subjective matter, while most people take the intrinsic value of humans for granted the view that Nature is very often personalized in the sense that it has inherent rights and is as such subject to the same moral, ethical and legal protection is more controversial (Nash 1989) The world Ecotour 97 the first world congress and exhibition on Ecotourism was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 15 to 18 December 1997 it was organized by the Brazilian Society for the environment(BIOSFERA).The conference was attended by approximately 2000 people from throughout the world. They shared ecotourism theories, policies, plans, developments and management models. The key outcome of the conference was the realization that ecotourism is not a passing fad but has well and truly arrived, bearing the promise of environmental conservation, community wellbeing and economic benefits. Around Cameroons Lobeke National Park, trophy hunting in community hunting area is now generating some US$50,000 each year. This money is managed by local wildlife management committees. It is invested in education, through the construction of schools to provide shelter for children, who used to study under horrible conditions, provision of portable water through improvement of water sources and the construction of wells â€Å"The upshot is greater involvement of local communities in wildlife protection† WWF sources. Most natural areas are located in the rural locales; the development of tourism in such areas can have considerable impact on the local people (Lindberg and Enriquez 1994) Sensitive use policies that cause minimum negative social impact, but allow high levels of local involvement are required. Jobs for local people are a high priority, but are often difficult to provide in a sophisticated knowledge industry, such as ecotourism or adventure tourism. The development of tourism policy sensitive to local concerns is essential for obtaining community support (Lindberg and Enriquez1994).Local economic and social benefits cause an increase in support for ecological conservation. Travelers seek out businesses that emphasize the character of the locale in terms of architecture, heritage, cuisine aesthetics, ecology, etc. Tourism revenues give added value to those assets. A value that the locals may not have previously acknowledged. Travelers not only learn about the destination, they learn how to help sustain its character while deepening their own travel experiences. Residents learn that the ordinary and familiar may be of interest and value to outsiders. Ecotourism should essentially make good long-term business that should seek to employ and train local people, buy local supplies, and use local services. The more the locals benefit from the operation the more they will support the activities, and the better they will conserve the assets. Foreign visitors who learn about and observe local etiquette (including using at least a few courtesy words in the local language) feel a greater empathy with the experience. Local residents in turn who learn how to deal with foreign expectations that may differ from their own also appreciate the additional knowledge. Satisfied, excited visitors take new knowledge home and send friends off to experience the same and/or similar things they enjoyed which provide continuing business for the destination. The long term benefits of the resource of ecotourism to the local community, and to the operation must be enshrined, benefits may be economic, scientific, social, cultural, ethical or biological. DISADVANTAGES OF ECOTOURISM TO THE LOCAL PEOPLE The Ministry of Forest and Wildlife in Cameroon has been struggling to put on a legislation to kind of regulate the activities of local communities living around national parks and game reserves as these guidelines are being executed the rural communities face negative impact as they actually rely on the forest for a livelihood or survival. Huge sums or amounts of money is being spent and human resources continue to be used for ecotourism campaigns but this has not succeeded 100%.There had been stiff resistance in this relationship because ecotourism often will cause conflict and changes in land use rights, fails to deliver promises of community level benefits, damages environment and has plenty of other social impacts. In a real world situation focus should be made towards educating tourists of the environment and social effects of their travels. At the local level ecotourism has become a source of conflict over the control of land, resources and tourism profits, there are many problems abound with ecotourism with the case of Cameroon, the environmental effect on the local population and conflict over profit redistribution are only a few of those negative effects of ecotourism. The laws and regulations stands as a hindrance for the potential investors in the sector of ecotourism. There must be the prohibition of the promotion of unsustainable ecotourism projects and materials which project the false images of destinations, and equally demeaning local and indigenous cultures and natural resources. Ethnic groups are increasingly being seen as a backdrop to the scenery and wildlife, hence they do not participate fully in the development of ecotourism. The indigenous people struggle for cultural survival and freedom of cultural expression while being observed by the tourist. There are always resentments from the local people for they do not want this change that is being imposed on them. Tourism has been allowed to develop without any control. Lodges have been built, too much firewood is being used and no limit are placed on tourism vehicles, they drive off track and frequently harass the wildlife, their vehicles crisscross the zones and inevitably the bush or forest become eroded and degraded all these at the detriment of the locals. The regulations for environmental protection may be vaguely defined, very closely to implement, hard to enforce and uncertain ineffectiveness very often than not there are frequent confrontation between the indigenous population and the eco-guards, forest guards or the police and the gendarmes who are charged with the implementation of wildlife laws in Cameroon. The government of Cameroon regulates, administers and enforces environmental protection the lack of the commitment or capacity to manage ecotourism sites effectively. Government spends budget on politically beneficial but unproductive projects which has nothing to benefit either the locals or even the tourists. The government is vested in the benefits not the ecotourism industry which they are supposed to regulate causing restrictive environment regulations and enforcement to become more lenient. The constructions of an eco-touristic edifice may take precedence over more pressing environmental concerns like acquiring habitat, protecting endemic species and removing invasive ones. Ecotourism most often will be that which preserves and enhances local cultures but in this light it is clearly evident that with the creation of protected areas or zones local people are forced to illegally lose their homes most often without compensation as is the case in most developing countries Sometimes the local people are pushed to marginal lands with harsh climates, poor soils, lack of water and disease infested livestock since no veterinary care is taken of their livestock. This increases the dead toll of their livestock be it cattle, poultry or piggery. Some of the time the marginal lands do not assure for enough food for their livestock and for their own subsistence. Most often than not taxes are levied on their hard earned livestock this greatly embitters them. The creation of parks does nothing but establishes a permanent harsh survival reality and deprives the people of their traditional use of land sometimes this parks are created on their ancestral shrines which goes a long way to disturb the quietness of their gods, this greatly affects the tradition of the people in question, in some cases may even lead to violent confrontations between the authorities and the local villagers who see it as kind of sell out and thereby depriving them of their indigenous values. Hunting which is a passion of these indigenous people is banned and killing of an animal is illegal and punishable, these animals are their main source of protein and income, but they are prohibited to do poaching or hunting around the reserves, National Parks for example the small villages around Korup National Park in Ndian division of the South West Province of the Republic of Cameroon, this forest is completely out of bound to the local people who live and look at this forest for their livelihood same applies to the Menvelle wildlife (Gorilla sanctuary).The Mount Kupe Forest Project, Kejum keku reserve, the Waza National Park, the Limbe Wildlife Reserve, Kilum Mountain Project just to name a few. Most often than not populations are mostly displaced to create parks without even taking into account their resettlement schemes. CONSEQUENCES OF HUNTING ON ECOTOURISM All human actions in natural areas cause some impact. This can be positive or negative and can vary in scale. How much impact is acceptable? The determination of impact, the assessment of the acceptability of the impact, the management of the impact and the monitoring of the impact must be done. (Stankey, et al 1985,Prosser 1986). The hunting of nonhuman primates is biologically an old practice that human beings share with their closest cousins the chimpanzee, hunting methods or techniques and patterns however have changed substantially in recent times. It has been noted in the twentieth century that due to the use of firearms the efficiency and frequency of hunting has increased. Tourism, hunting and butchering on nonhuman primates has been linked to the emergence of some infectious diseases, for instance hunting red colobus (procolobus badius oustaleti)has been implicated in a localized epidemic of monkeypox that has continued for four generations of nonhuman to human contacts, this implying that even the tourist who visit these areas are at risks. Hunting behavior generally tends to focus around villages or new human settlements in logging camps or along roads sides and studies have shown that hunting in a village in the Dja Reserve in the south of Cameroon have demonstrated that both the levels and impact of hunting decreases as a function of distance from the village. The results have importance for both wildlife conservation as well as for assessing the emergence of risks associated with hunting, .(Muchaal and Ngandjui 1999) Both subsistence and commercial hunting with wire snares and firearms are widespread activities throughout the forests of Cameroon . In addition road networks and increasing opportunities for transporting hunted games have led to an increase in sales and rates of hunting. Some of the parts of rural hunting villages in Cameroon have also been linked to hunting and butchering apes especially those of the south. For means of sustaining livelihood the local villagers around the reserves in the rural areas tend to do illegal hunting in the protected zones Hunting increases in these regions in direct proportion to logging activities. When the logging companies open up new areas, snare and firearm hunters follow in their track. Logging camps in the region provide a cash market for fresh bush meat and their trucks are often used as a means of transportation of smoked bush meat to the urban markets of Yaoundà © and Douala where demand is high. The densities of large primates(gorillas and chimpanzees)in the East Province are among the highest in all of Africa. Hunting of these ape species likely results in a higher risk of exposure than the hunting of the other species. Driving the bush meat trade in Cameroon is the large growing urban demand in conjunction with the opening up of logging concessions in the east province. The market among households for sauce preparation in Yaoundà © alone is estimated at approximately $4million annually(IITA unpublished data) There were differences in the form of bush meat consumed with the poor more likely to purchase smoked bush meat rather than the more expensive fresh product. The conclusion here is that even though of its illegality smoked bush meat is an important source of protein for both the rural and the urban poor. Urban demand makes hunting a source of income for rural households. Some in the ecotourism industry have refused to take Cameroon seriously as a tourist destination until the government begins to take tougher stands against the countrys thriving bush meat trade. The killing of rare wildlife species for food and cultural artifacts was once believed to be an activity exclusively of the native pygmies. Today most observers recognize that the bush meat trade has become a part of mainstream of the forest or the rural villages of Cameroon, meat from forest elephants, chimpanzees, gorillas and other native animals are a popular and often preferable substitute to beef, poultry, or pork, a traditional pygmy will often include chimpanzee or gorilla instead of a chicken on a Christmas dish, of course killing and selling rare animals is illegal but laws go mainly unenforced because of a combination of corruption, lack of resources for law enforcement and a kind of apathy to the problem, in addition to logging concessions that the governments hands out to dealers who have little or no idea on conservation. The exposure to non human primates has led to the emergence of important diseases, including Ebola hemorrhagic fever, and adult T-cell leukemia. To determine the extent of exposure to nonhuman primates, persons were examined in 17 rural hunting remote rural villages in Cameroon that represented three habitats (savannah, gallery, forest and lowland forest. The convention on international trade in Endangered species found that the increasing commercialization of trade has led to some 68species in Cameroon being threatened by poaching. SOME SETBACKS OF ECOTOURISM TO THE ECOTOURISTS Nonhuman primate ecotourism for example gorilla watching has been associated with the possible transmission from nonhuman primates to humans of diseases that includes scabies for example sarcoptes scabies, intestinal parasites and measles, equally laboratory handling of tissues or fluids of nonhuman primates has led to the transmission of a variety of infections to humans .including Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and SV40. Additionally the keeping of nonhuman primate pets has been linked to the transmission of variety of microorganisms. A range of activities involves direct contact between humans and non human primates and allows for the transmission of micro organisms such behaviors can facilitate transmission of microorganisms from nonhuman primates to humans with consequences for human health, as well as from humans to non human primates, this equally has great consequences on wildlife conservation. Care for captive nonhuman primates has led to the transmission of a range of infections, including Simian foamy virus, herpes virus B. (HBV) primate malaria and tuberculosis. A widespread problem in ecotourism is the assurance of information accuracy of quality interpretation of levels of safety of operational integrity and of adherence to impact rules. Consumers look for such assurances and any deficiency in these areas can seriously inhibit use. Visitors satisfaction surveys are becoming a more important part of park and ecotourism management, they are common in developed countries but rare in Africa (Friesen1995) WAY FORWARD FOR ECOTOURISM IN CAMEROON The local communities must be given status as equal partners in the venture and their share of the revenue must be contractually guaranteed over and above the creation of jobs and by so doing the local communities should receive priority in terms of jobs. Local communities should be clearly identified, their legal access to the resource, through their legal tenure should be recognized and acknowledged. The distribution of revenues to the local people should be fair, transparent and accountable. Capacity building for local people should be part of the scheme, to the extent that there should be maximum involvement of the local people or communities in the planning and development of ecotourism with benefits accruing from it to the local people not leaving out minority and disadvantaged groups. Ecotourism operations should and in most cases must be an imperative involvement of big business concessions coming from the west( partners from abroad) in the form of people and investment for development, but it must also involve local communities and individual entrepreneurs. It is worthy of note that Ecotourism should be planned in an environmentally sensitive manner so that its natural and cultural resources are conserved, ecotourism development does not generate serious adverse environmental or sociological impacts, the overall quality of the environment is maintained or improved, the benefits of ecotourism are widely spread in the society and ecotourism satisfaction levels are maintained. Ecotourists should be environmentally aware they should favor businesses that have active programs to minimize pollution, waste, energy consumption, water usage, the use of landscaping chemicals, and unnecessary night time lighting. Stakeholders who can recognize that development pressures can deplete resources, and apply limits and management techniques to prevent this to happen can gain respect. Thus businesses that co-operate to sustain natural habitats, heritage sites, scenic appeal, local culture etc, are perceived generally as good businesses that are environmentally sensitive. This therefore calls for good plannification and implementation techniques which must be considered throughout the planning process, this planning should not leave out contemporary and creative concepts of development. Communities need to measure Ecotourism success not by the many numbers of visitors, but by the length of stay, money spent, and quality of experience. Many visitors may not be necessarily better since we acknowledge that every site has a maximum carrying capacity, which must not be exceeded or over utilized, this kind of over utilization may lead to some kind of abuses hence if the capacity is exceeded it could lead to the resources becoming depleted or overexploited or exhausted as the case may be. Participation by the Ecotourists should be encouraged at all levels and in all sectors since they form part of the whole network their exclusion will mean that the industry will fail to exist they must be part and parcel of the whole scheme. Their participation at all levels is very primordial, since decisions to be taken equally involves them. All resources should be respected and every effort must be made to use them sparingly and judiciously to avoid eventual depletion of the resources in question. Value adding by all the stakeholders at all levels will be very essential for success to be recorded. Education and training of all parties that are involved, the local communities, the Ecotourists, government and those operating in the ecotourism industry this will be a key asset leading to success. Ethical and moral attitudes, and responsibility towards the natural and cultural environment, should be promoted by all concerned with the operation that is from the part of the government, the locals and why not the visitors since all of them have a stake in the venture. Partnerships between all parties involved in the venture should be promoted. For Ecotourism to succeed there must be a high level of co-operation between the local, regional, national and international communities, so that everyone should benefit to the maximum. This co-operation must also extend into the field of marketing and promotion of the said tourist destination. At the end of the day it is the initiative and responsibility shown by the community that will determine the success or failure of an Ecotourism venture. There are no guarantees. All parties involved have to risk failure and all parties must know this risk of possible failure at the very beginning. Ecotourism is integrated as a system in itself, and the Ecotourism sector is integrated into the overall development policies and plans of the area and local plans are integrated into the national and regional Ecotourism policies and future plans if there are any. It is sometimes appropriate, to do strategic planning which focuses more on identification and resolution of immediate issues or problems. All levels of the Ecotourism industry are vital, and the quality of training and the resulting services that are offered must be of the highest quality or standards. These standards must also be maintained and improved over time and space, this will require putting in place monitoring and evaluation programs. CONCLUSION It should be noted that at the start of any ecotourism ventures, these should be backed by both the Social and environmental impact assessments. These in a bid to ensure sustainability both economically and ecologically. Research into these societies in themselves and the local politics can help identify and discard negative attitudes that may discourage the indigenes and even potential ecotourists. These procedures should not be too cumbersome and time consuming but should be in proportion to the size of the proposed development as the case may be limited finances have to carry the project through this information gathering period. The amount of environmental and social impact allowed is a management decision. This decision should or must take into account the legal and environment policy of the protected areas. Ecotourism is seen as a kind of exploitation and depletion in the case of the rural villages of Cameroon, it should be given more orientation to serve as a useful tool to lo cal communities and equally to become sustainable. In Cameroon there had been little or no awareness as far as the tourist industry is concerned, there has been low impact educational, ecological and cultural sensitive awareness. All these issues must be addressed by the stakeholders in the tourist industry for it to be sustainable until when all these will be met with, then will it be a success story. In many parts of Cameroon, the involvement of local people is crucial in creating a memorable ecotouristic experience. Even though local people strongly support ecotourism development, they are involved little with the planning and management of ecotourism in the region. Therefore, for the sustainability of ecotourism development, future planning should consider the inclusion of local people. Mechanisms should be created to strengthen the coordination between different Stakeholders, especially the locals who most often constitute farmers etc. The development of policies concerning ecotourism planning can be very important, provided that this process is conducted in an open and participative manner to ensure that the growth of the tourism sector in Cameroon is sustainable. In addition to offering adequate services and goods to tourists, the local government and companies in the ecotourism sector must also cater to the needs of the local community. Most inhabitants in Cameroon are unable to use the same services or purchase the same goods that may seem inexpensive to a foreign tourist. The economic growth brought about by international tourism is not perceived as entirely positive by everyone in the village. Some goods and services have become more expensive to local people. This then gives them the impression that Tourism in general is not for everyone since the life of the population and the local workers most often does not change much. Bibliography Bandy, J. (1996). Managing the Other of Nature: Sustainability, Spectacle and Global Regimes of Capital in Ecotourism. Public Culture, 8(3), 539-566. World Tourism Organization. 2000. WTO Tourism Highlights 2000, 2nd Ed. (August 2000). WTO, Madrid Fernnell, D. A. (2008) Ecotourism and the Myth of Indigenous Stewardship, in Journal of Sustainable Tourism Vol. 16, No. 2. Friesen, Bram. (1995). Safari Tourism to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Catholic University of Nijmegen, Netherlands. Stronza, A. (2001). Anthropology of Tourism: Forging New Ground for Ecotourism and Other Alternatives. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 261-283. Constanza et al, (1989) Valuation and management of wetland ecosystems. Ecological economics Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996). Tourism, ecotourism, and protected areas. Gland: IUCN Lindberg, K., McKercher, B. (1997). Ecotourism: A critical overview. Pacific Tourism Review. Lindberg Enriquez(1994) In: analysis of Ecotourisms contribution to Conservation and Development in Belize vol.2World Wildlife Fund Washington The Journal Of Ecotourism Studies vol.10N °2 Dec 1999 Honey, M. (1999) Ecotour

Ideas, Themes, Symbols, and Symbolism in Siddhartha :: Hesse Siddhartha Essays

Siddhartha: Ideas, Themes, and Symbols This novel had the constant presence of the philosophy of Buddha. From the beginning to the end, Siddhartha was in search of Nirvana. He repetitively showed dissatisfaction to each of his new lifestyles and had to move on in his search. This philosophy was emphasized greatly at the climax, when Siddhartha attempted suicide but heard the all-knowing "Om" from within himself. By the end, both he and his friend, Govinda, had reached enlightenment. All of the characters lived in their own satisfying world. Everyone had reached his own destiny, everyone had reached his own Nirvana.       The novel had a faint cyclic theme to it. The main character led an ascetic, pure lifestyle. He then turned to a materialistic world, and finally returned to the ascetic life. He had lived with the Samanas, a group of ascetics who lived in the forest. He moved on to the town of Samsara where he fell in love with a beautiful woman, became a rich merchant, and lived life in luxury. In his return to the ascetic life, Siddhartha became a ferryman and lived by the river until the end of this book. He was happiest there, learning from this great river. This theme was also evident when his young son left him to pursue other interests. It reminded Siddhartha of when he had left his own father. Though this theme was never explicitly mentioned by the author, the intent may have been to have such truths embedded in the reader's subconscious.       The most important theme was the self-discovery of the protagonist. The reader is brought into the life of this young man and is shown all of the high and low points. From the very beginning of this novel, Siddhartha was in search for the truth. What he had in store for himself was many years of discontent, but finally he found what he was looking for. It was at the river where Siddhartha found the meaning of life. For many years after his attempted suicide, he remained by the river and learned the secrets of the world.       A major symbol was the magical river that Siddhartha crossed   several times. It represented the boundary between the ascetic world and the materialistic world. He had to cross this river to get from the world of the Samanas (the ascetics) and the town of Samsara (where his lover and merchant mentor was).

The Relationship between pupil expenditure in high and low capacity school districts and community variables

Across the nation, the public, lawmakers and educators have become deeply concerned with finding ways to measure the effectiveness of schools and school systems. Politicians and educators have been struggling with developing useful yardsticks for school effectiveness that are honest, accurate and easily comprehended. The initial stages of this effort have often resulted in evaluations that assess, judge and even mete out consequences to schools who’ve been measured by a small set of benchmarks that often do not reflect the context of the individual school.Many states, including Rhode Island, have published annual state achievement results. People have used these results to rank order districts and schools on the basis of those results as if the schools were competing on a level playing field. While valid for certain purposes, these methods encourage the public to draw sometimes unfortunate conclusions about the value of a school or school system because the yardstick itself is not sensitive to differences in school contexts, to other information about school practices, or to achievement results which are not part of the formal state assessment program.In this study we will undertake the analysis from the financial perspective and study the relationship between pupil expenditure in high and low capacity school districts and community variables. A multiple regression model will be used in order to statistically evaluate the relationship (Information works, 01) 2- LITERATURE REVIEW A hypothesis (H) is an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher. It may, for example, be a tentative statement about relationships between two or more variables as stipulated by the theoretical framework or the analytical model.Often, a hypothesis is a possible answer to the research question. Hypotheses go beyond research questions because they are statements of relationships or propositions rather than merely question to which answers are sought. Whereas research questions are interrogative, Hypotheses are declarative and can be tested empirically. An important role of a hypothesis is to suggest variables to be included in the research design (Malhotra, 77). A literature review will be undertaken in order to develop hypothesis which will be tested in the study.In our study we will use the same variables as Gaudet used in the study of performance of the MCAS tests. Using these variables we will test the relationship with the pupil expenditure in school districts. These include level of educational attainment of school districts, income level, percentage of households above the poverty line, its percentage of single-parent families, its percentage of non-English-speaking households, and its level of private school enrollment in school districts. 3- REASONS FOR CHOOSING THIS TOPICThe fundamental reason for choosing this topic is that having searched literature I found that very few works have been c onducted concerning the relationship between pupil expenditure in high and low capacity school districts and community variables. Since most of the studies have been focusing the students’ performances as the indicator of the success of the school systems. This fact has encouraged me to do this piece of work in order to contribute to the existing knowledge about this subject by adding a new point of view.Another reason is that most people who are involved in the evaluation of the school systems have poor background in finance, so it is so difficult for them to understand the pros and cons of the financial aspects of the school systems. In addition to that analysts and common people should understand the relationship between pupil expenditure in high and low capacity school districts and community variables. They should not only concentrate on educational tools but also address the community variables while designing the educational expenditure policies in order to improve the performance of the school system in the United States.

Gsis Museo Ng Sining Essay

Museo ng Sining was established in April 1996. Its creation is a tribute to the creative endeavors of the contemporary Filipino. Its vision is to help define the growth and glorious flowing of Philippine visual arts. Its objectives are: To collect Philippine art and artistic expressions from the colonial period to the present . To exhibit and document Philippine and non-philippine art and artistic expressions . To heighten art appreciation among the 6SIS personnel and the general public The 6SlS Museo ng Sining functions not only as an exhibition space but as an ducational technology as well. It has the following activities: Permanent exhibition of the 6SlS Art Collection Changing exhibition in the galleries featuring cultural themes and works of new artists Art activities, lectures, workshops, and films focused on the role of art not only as an aesthetic experience but as a significant factor in everyday life 6SIS MUSEUM HELD â€Å"ME-DISINING† EXHIBIT The Government Service Insurance System (6SlS) held an exhibit in honor of the works of Toribio Herrera, one of the pioneers of Philippine painting in the 1920s who set the tone for modern day artists. The exhibit, titled â€Å"MediSining: The Art of Toribio Herrera, MD,† is held at the Upper Gallery of the 6SlS Museum of Art in Pasay City and ran up to November 30, 2009 In his lifetime, Herrera never exhibited his works to the public nor sold a painting as he did not seek monetary rewards for his art. In fact, his very first exhibition was held in 1972, four years after his death. Born in Tondo in 1892, Herrera first graduated in Medicine at the University of Santo Tomas in 1912. Later, he took a second course in Fine Arts at the University of the Philippines, and as eventually accepted to teach there. â€Å"Influenced by a deep understanding of both intricate human anatomy and the profound brush strokes and lines that make up perspective, his paintings are a Joy to behold,† said 6SlS President and General Manager Winston F. Garcia, in appreciation of the works of Herrera. â€Å"His scenes are simple yet very moving. † Herrera was part of the Amorsolo, Castaneda, Miranda Group of Filipino Genre Masters who set the tone of Philippine painting, particularly during the 1920s. We are lucky that in this country, we have our artists, who keep efining us as a country and as a generation,† Mr. Garcia added. SA AMIN MAY SINING The 6SlS Museum, in partnership with Kuta ng Sining, Inc. , also showcased the works of Quezon artists last August 7 to 28, 2009 entitled â€Å"Sa amin may Sining†. The province of Quezon is not only known for its Pahi yas festivity but also for the ingenuity and creativity of its home-grown artists. Featured artists in â€Å"Sa amin may Sining† include Noel P. Bueza, Erick Dator, Norman F. Ragudo, Monnar Baldemor, Jowell Gaela, and Efren D. Nantes. GSIS PAINTING COMPETITION cross the country, gives away hundreds of thousands of pesos each year to showcase the Filipinos’ rich talent in art. For this year’s competition, the 6SlS decided to have an open theme to encourage artists to explore their best in presenting and conceptualizing their artwork entry. The categories for this year’s competition include representational and non-representational. The 6SlS will give away Pl . 2 million this year, with the first prize winner for each category going home with P300,OOO. The second placer for both categories will each receive P200,OOO and PIOO,OOO for the hird prize. 6SlS ANNUAL ART COMPETITION The Government Service Insurance System (6SlS) believes in the Filipino artist and his invaluable role in shaping how the country thinks. For the sixth year. , the 6SlS is renewing its pledge to support artists all over the country through the Annual Art Competition, which aims to showcase the best paintings and sculptures of this generation. Beyond ensuring lives and property, the 6SlS also insures national heritage, for a nation that carries its artists is a nation that carries itself forward.

Cherokee Tribes essays

Cherokee Tribes essays The Cherokee Indians were one of the civilized tribes in the United States. They were located in the southeastern part of the U.S. This includes the western parts of North and South Carolina, The northern parts of Alabama and Georgia, Southwest Virginia and the Cumberland basin of Tennessee. It appears the Cherokee settled in 1000 A.D. to 1500 A.D. Their development took place in to stages or phases. The Pisgah which took place 1300 A.D. to 1540 A.D. and the Qualla which took place 1540 A.D. to 1750 A.D. The first period was primitive and the second was influenced by European contact. They were a large tribe that was part of the Iroquian language group even though their language is very different. Despite this the Cherokee developed written language due to contact with the white men. They were very interested in learning the white men ways. Although there is a lot written about the Cherokee and Europeans, the focus here will be Cherokee life including daily life, marriage, governmen t, and war. Cherokee villages consisted of groups of relatives that included members of at least four clans. They grew crops outside their villages. There were also some fields inside the villages. Each family had a marked section of the field. Both men and women helped in farming every section. As with many tribes the men were responsible for hunting, fishing, building houses and council lodges, made important decisions, performed religious ceremonies, trained young boys and defended the village. The Cherokee women were responsible for the home, raising the children, helping in the fields, preparing and gathering food, washing and making clothes, and making baskets and pottery. Even though The Cherokee were a matrilineal society only certain women were allowed to have input in council decisions. The Cherokee had many rules and regulations to live by and since they have a strong sense of tradition these rules were not challenged until they came into c...

Climate Change, Development and Disaster Risk Reduction

Climate Change, Development and Disaster Risk Reduction Introduction The climatic conditions of the earth have changed significantly over the centuries. This can be noticed from the geological evidence of changes in sea levels and ice ages. The patterns of human activity over the centuries also give good evidence of climate change.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Climate Change, Development and Disaster Risk Reduction specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is unclear what caused the climate changes in the past, but scientists have listed possible causes like volcanic eruptions, the sun’s effects, and changes in ocean currents (Pelling 2011 p. 17). The evidence of climate change at present is mainly seen in the sharp increase in global temperatures over the past few decades. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report arrived at the conclusion that climate change was happening at present. Atmospheric and oceanic temperatures have reached reco rd high levels that have never been witnessed in the last 500 years and most likely for over 1000 years (IPPC 2008 p. 34). The effects of climate change can be seen in many areas, with one of the most common pointers being the increased frequency of natural disasters. Industrialization and deforestation increase the levels greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere, and this has consequently led to an increase in droughts, floods, hurricanes and other natural disasters. Current Approach to Climate Change A look at the statistics indicates that climate change is a major issue that requires a serious approach in order to mitigate its effects. For the period from 1995 to 2004, disasters caused 890,000 deaths and affected a total of 2.5 billion people, with losses estimated at US$ 570 billion (IPCC 2008 p. 46). The number of disasters recorded almost doubled for the period running from 1995 to 2005, and this is cause for major concern. Other plausible explanations for this increa se include population growth and the increase in the number of climatic disasters of a lower magnitude. However, the increased cases of droughts, storms, and very high rainfalls in different places are indicative of the culmination of the effects of climate change, and major disasters are yet to follow in the future (Schipper Pelling 2006, p. 117). Some positive statistics show that there are now fewer people dying as a result of disasters as compared to previous centuries. This is particularly so for widespread flooding and drought, which have in the past claimed hundreds of thousands of human lives.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This reduction can be attributed to improved systems for monitoring climatic patterns, providing early warning of impending disaster and general preparedness (Sietz Boschutz 2011 p. 82). The responses of governments and internationa l organizations through measures like evacuations and food aid have also helped save a lot of lives. However, this trend could be on the reverse since the past few decades have seen a rise in the baseline level of deaths, which can be attributed to a growing population with a majority of the poor living in disaster prone areas. It is the poor people that feel the full impact of disasters and other effects of climate change. Any progress that has been made towards poverty reduction over the years can be undone due to the damages caused by these disasters (Pachuari 2004 p. 137). Many people in the population expect their respective governments to shield them from the risks of disaster at all costs (Wilkinson 2012 p. 156). They do not seriously consider the risks that they may be putting themselves in from the choices they make, especially concerning where they settle and the socio-economic activities that they engage in. Experts have proposed an approach that decreases the chances of the population suffering impending disasters, regardless of whether they are related to climate change or not. This idea of disaster risk reduction or adaptation can be implemented in several ways. These include public awareness programs, early warning systems, and environmental protection. These efforts also require serious political commitment and administrative input from respective governments. Politics, Institutions and Climate Change Disaster risk reduction and climate change are closely related, yet they are usually discussed under different policy spheres at both national and international forums. In recent years, those concerned with disaster reduction have actively contributed to discussions on climate change, and have proposed concepts for adaptation.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Climate Change, Development and Disaster Risk Reduction specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There have been efforts to combine the efforts towards disaster reduction and climate change. There are several UN processes geared towards risk reduction. They include bodies like the United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UNOHRLLS) and the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Small Island Developing States have already recognized the need to reduce the risks of climate change, and have come up with the Mauritius Strategy on sustainable development. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is also helping poor countries that depend on agriculture how to reduce risk and adapt to climate change. Experts emphasize that the most of the efforts towards reducing climate change and disaster risks should be made at community and state levels. This calls for an integrated approach that unites the efforts of all the concerned sectors under a common framework. Some of these sectors include education, i nfrastructure, health, and environment. It has been noted that most of the disaster risk reduction efforts in many countries are handled by the armed forces or emergency management bodies that usually have few connections with other concerned ministries like environment, finance, or economic planning. Many countries are now looking at how to integrate these efforts for better coordination and collaboration between all the major stakeholders (Willis 2005 p. 175). The public needs to be actively engaged in disaster reduction efforts to complement the efforts by the government and international bodies. The private sector also has a lot of expertise when it comes to disaster management and risk reduction, and their in put should be sought to boost the efforts that are already in place. Climate change is now the leading cause of many disasters happening all over the world. As a result, the efforts at mitigating the effects of climate change are closely related to disaster risk reduction, and the two must be approached by combining efforts. Future projections for climate change Experts are now using computer-based models to try to predict future climate patterns. These models incorporate important factors that affect the atmosphere and the oceans, like the projected increase in greenhouse gases due to socio-economic activities. The results released by the IPCC based on the computer models paint a very grim picture.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Surface air temperatures for the globe are expected to increase by 1.1-6.4 degrees Celsius while seas levels are expected to rise by 18 to 59 cm by the year 2100 (IPCC 2008 p. 58). The acidity of the oceans will increase while the planet will experience heat waves and high precipitation events will become more common. The high precipitation will mainly be seen at higher altitudes while the subtropical areas will see less rainfall. The continuous rising of tropical sea surface temperatures will cause the tropical cyclones, like typhoons and hurricanes, to become more intense. This will be seen in the higher peak wind speeds and more accompanying precipitation (citation). Expected effects of climate change Melt water from the top of the mountains supply more than one sixth of the planet’s population with their water needs. These are people living mainly in the dry tropics and mid latitudes, and they are likely to experience a significant reduction in water supply by the middle of the century. There will be higher precipitation in some areas and this is most likely to result in more floods. The mid and high altitude areas may initially benefit from higher agricultural output due to the increased precipitation. However, in the lower altitude areas, crop production will be heavily affected due to the increases in temperature and frequency of droughts and floods. There will be more people facing hunger and this will cause displacement and migration of large populations. Those societies, settlements, and industries located at the coastal areas and river flood plains face the highest risks from the effects of climate change. Also under threat are those countries whose economies are heavily dependent on climate-sensitive resources. The extreme weather patterns have become a common occurrence and with increased intensity, and the economic and social costs of damages resulting from these events will increase. This is more so for places undergoing rapid urbanizatio n. The negative impact of climate change on health is a major concern. Heat waves, storms, droughts, floods, and fires are likely to cause more injuries and deaths. Other threats to health will come from malaria, diarrhea, and malnutrition. The projects aimed at improving public health especially in the poor countries will suffer a huge setback as a result of disasters (Mehta 2000 p. 89). Climate change is expected to affect all countries, but the nastiest effects will be experienced by people in poor countries and the poor segment in developed countries. The poor have a tendency to live in high-risk areas like flood plains, yet they do not have properly built houses. Their economic activities are also dependent on climate, like agriculture, and they have no capacity to cope with the effects of climate change (Madan 2010 p. 67). This means that the low incomes of the poor are likely to fall further, and the rates of illness and death will increase in many developing countries. Afric a already suffers from numerous problems like endemic poverty, armed conflicts, and other disasters yet it lacks the institutional capacity to deal with these situations. This makes the continent extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Drought is set to continue being a major problem in Africa, and it has been shown that sub-Saharan Africa has become drier during the 20th century. Agricultural production and water supply are expected to reduce significantly, with some projections putting a reduction in agricultural yields by up to 50% by the year 2020 (Low 2005 p. 248). Asia has been keen on sustainable development but this is set to come under strain as climate change puts more pressure on natural resources that are already under threat from urbanization and industrialization. Dealing with Climate Change The world has slowly awaken to the fact that climate change is a major concern, and countries are now trying to discuss and negotiate ways of dealing with the proble m, mainly under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It has been widely accepted that greenhouse emissions arising from human activity are the main problem, and focus is now on how to reduce these emissions (Levine, Ludi Jones 2011, p. 46). There is a lot of contention on how to go about reducing greenhouse emissions, as it calls for radical changes that will affect the society in a major way. The use of fossil fuels, industries, urban development, and general land use all need to be changed drastically and this is likely to affect many people in a huge way hence the resistance. The efforts at reducing greenhouse emissions are referred to as â€Å"mitigation†. Some of the proposed mitigation actions include switching to renewable forms of energy, development of low-energy technologies and reducing reliance on energy-intensive products. It also involves environmental management and conservation efforts targeting forests and soils. The second pla n of action in response to climate change involves finding ways of managing its impacts. The amounts of greenhouse gases that have already accumulated in the atmosphere mean that the world cannot escape the impacts of climate change. This is reinforced by the continued emissions before the mitigation efforts take full effect. It is widely accepted that the impacts of climate change are coming or are already here, and some effort is being put towards lessening these impacts. These efforts towards coping with climate change are referred to as â€Å"adaptation†. Proposed adaptation efforts include early warning systems, better building designs, improved agricultural practices, and putting in place social safety nets for the poor. Adaptation and mitigation efforts should go hand in hand for complimentary effect (Jones et al. 2010 p. 79). Conclusion Geological and anthropological evidence indicate that the earth has experienced climate change before. It is difficult to point out t he real reasons behind climate change in the past. However, climate change is happening now, and much of it is due to human activity. Both atmospheric and oceanic temperatures have reached record highs that have not been experienced for hundreds of years. The effects of climate change are already being felt, especially due to the increased frequency of disasters all over the world. These changes have mostly affected poor people living in disaster prone areas (Baker 2012 p. 28). The most common effects are extreme weather conditions like heavy rainfall that results in widespread floods, and prolonged drought that causes famine and denies the poor a source of livelihood through agriculture. There have been efforts towards addressing climate change as the world continues to witness its devastating effects. However, there seems to be several hindering factors, mainly at local and national levels (Dasgupta Baschieri 2010 p. 56). Most countries lack the capacities and institutional frame works to deal with climate change, and there has also been slow reaction from governments yet they are expected to play a significant role in the whole process. Efforts at addressing climate change revolve around mitigation actions aimed at reducing greenhouse emissions, and adaptation actions meant to reduce the impacts of climate change. Mitigation requires some drastic measures that are bound to affect many people in a significant way, and this has caused a lot of debate. As for adaptation, it has come to be accepted that climate change is already causing problems, with more to come so people are trying to find ways of lessening the impact. References Baker, J L 2012, Climate change, disaster risk, and the urban poor: Cities building  resilience for a changing world, World Bank, Washington, D.C. Dasgupta, A Baschieri, A 2010, ‘Vulnerability to Climate Change in Rural Ghana: Mainstreaming Climate Change in Poverty-Reduction Strategies’, Journal of  International Development, vol. 954 no.748, pp. 803-820 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2008, Climate change 2007: impacts,  adaptation and vulnerability : Working Group II contribution to the Fourth Assessment  Report of the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva. Jones, L., Jaspars, S., Pavanello, S., Ludi, E., Slater, R., Arnall, A., Grist, N and Mtisi, S 2010, Responding to a changing climate: Exploring how disaster risk reduction, social  protection and livelihoods approaches promote features of adaptive capacity, Overseas Development Institute, London. Levine, S., Ludi, E. and Jones, L 2011, Rethinking Support for Adaptive Capacity to  Climate Change The Role of Development Interventions, Overseas Development Institute, London Low, S 2005, Climate change and Africa, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge [u.a.], Madan K 2010, Natural and anthropogenic disasters: vulnerability, preparedness and  Mitigation, Springer, Dordrecht Mehta, l 2000, â €˜Environmental Governance in an Uncertain World’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 32 no. 4, pp. 1-15 Pachauri, R 2004, ‘Climate Change and Its Implications for Development’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 35 no. 3, pp. 11-14. Pelling, M 2011, ‘Conclusion: adapting with climate change’, Adaptation to climate  change: from resilience to transformation, Routledge: New York, Schipper, L and Pelling, M 2006, ‘Disaster risk, climate change and international development: Scopes for, and challenges to, integration’, Disasters, vol. 30 no. 1, pp. 19-38. Sietz, D and Boschutz, M 2011, ‘Mainstreaming climate adaptation into development assistance: rationale, institutional barriers and opportunities in Mozambique,  Environmental Science Policy, vol. 14 no. 4, pp 493-502. Wilkinson, E 2012, Transforming disaster risk management: a political economy  approach, Overseas Development Institute, London. Willis, K 2005, Theories and Practices of Development, Routl edge, Abingdon.

Birth Defects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Birth Defects - Essay Example The paper aims at exploring some of the potent birth defects that are plaguing the mankind; probable causes behind these birth defects and the measures that can be applied to prevent the birth defects in newborns. Current Scenario in the UK Smith (2011) argues that one in 80 babies suffers some kind of a birth defect in the UK such as Down's syndrome or neural tube defects such as spina bifida or congenital heart disease. The surprising part is that the proportion of birth defects in the newborns has almost doubled from the previous estimate. The rise in numbers is purely attributed to a better data collection system and nothing else. In 2009, there were, as per the researchers’ estimate, 14,500 babies with some sort of birth defects in England and Wales. By the way, London had the highest cases of Down's syndrome (34 per 10,000 children) then among major towns. Heart disorder is found to be the most common birth defect among the newborns in the UK needing surgery. At least si x percent of newborns with heart disease are not likely to survive. Spina bifida or neural tube defects are found in at least one in 1,000 babies and doctors say that the birth defects could have been simply prevented if mothers were given folic acid in adequate quantity during pregnancy. Similarly, cleft lip or palate is found to be in 15.2 babies per 10,000; Edwards’ syndrome in seven per 10,000 and Patau’s syndrome in two per 10,000 babies of England and Wales. At least, 50 percent of the defects were detected during pregnancy itself. It is noteworthy that numbers of birth defects due to Down's syndrome are increasing perhaps due to pregnancy incidents at higher age (Smith, 2011). Birth Defects due to External Agents Chiras (2012) emphasises that most birth defects are caused due to some sort of chemical, physical or biological agents. Dietary deficiency of folic acid also plays a pivotal role in birth defects. The time of exposure to any of these agents play a cruc ial role in causing a birth-defect. Organ systems are the most affected parts due to the exposure to any of harmful agent. The central nervous system is more at risk because it starts developing during the third week of pregnancy – a time when woman is not even aware that she is pregnant. Women in the habit of consuming alcohol or drugs are most likely to harm central nervous system, heart, limbs and eyes of the baby as these organs start developing as early as third week of pregnancy. Birth Defect Classifications Broadly, birth defects can be classified into two kinds: Functional and Structural. Functional birth defect relates with the abnormal functioning of some body part. Mental retardation, learning disabilities, speech difficulties are the brain defects that indicate about the functional impairment. Examples of birth defects pertaining to nervous system include Down’s syndrome, autism, and Fragile X syndrome. Metabolic disorders such as phynylketonuria (PKU) or h ypothyroidism are examples of functional disorder. Cleft lip or palate, spina bifida are the examples of Structural birth defects. Missing heart valve, abnormal limbs such as a club foot also fall in this category. Some of the birth defects that follow will explain how they impair body’s normal functioning and learning abilities. Down’s syndrome Down's syndrome is a congenital disorder impacting physical and mental growth of the child. The children with Down's syndrome are also found to be impacted with high incidence of heart disease, hearing or vision issues, Alzheimer's disease. Down's syndrome is found more in boys (by 15%) than girls. More incidences of Down' syndrome is noticed at the places where mothers give births at higher age. Mother with age 45 or above carries the

Catfish and Mandala Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Catfish and Mandala - Essay Example His identity as a Viet-kieu - a Vietnamese who now lives in a foreign land like the United States (Martin, 2000), had brought him as much challenge as he had ever thought of. At a certain point in someone else's life, there comes a point when, even if the situation tells you that you have been the luckiest man in the world, there is only emptiness felt. Just like Andrew Pham who had been a successful engineer in California, found nothing but emptiness alone even as, according to the norms of the society, he had been victorious against the battle of the foreign land he used to know twenty years ago. When his post-operated transsexual sister had committed suicide, Pham found it hard to have peace of mind. He blames himself for his sister's untimely death. Thus, eager to find out what brought his sister to commit such unforgivable act, he went back to his hometown to figure out his real identity as a Vietnamese-American who feels out-of-place in a country he had lived for over twenty years already yet unwelcome due to their race. Catfish and Mandala is a book that is a combination of a travelogue, a memoir, and a self-discovery help book in one. The plot of the story varies from Pham's journey around the Pacific Rim, through Japan and finally through his homeland, covering the stretch of the American-built Highway 1 from Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) to Hanoi, and the details of his family's struggles when hey first stepped onto the foreign land of the United States. Pham was able to illustrate his family's struggle against racism and the language barrier for which they had felt how it was being a stranger lost in a land you know nothing about. There was at the same time enough evidences shown in the story regarding the confusions that had them torn between two extremely different customs - the American culture and the Vietnamese culture - that are essential in recognizing one's own identity. ("Paperbacks") The moment Pham had set foot on the Vietnam land, various thoughts of his childhood occurred to him. Although they had been bleak, Pham could remember how his childhood had shaped his future that he holds in his hands at present. Now, bicycling and looking around the country where he had been born, Pham could not even at the least feel sorry for the people who had remained in the country after the fall of Saigon. He felt hardly against their situation and blamed such luck on their capitalist society. Pham, instead of feeling apologetic about the condition of his fellow Vietnamese of the lingering poverty that they still have after a long time, he felt nothing but to blame them for what they have become. But his quest to finding his own identity had made him feel good, but at the same time bad. He had the best privileges of being recognized as a Viet-kieu. On the other hand, he had worst experiences for being mistaken for being a Japanese or a Korean. (Martin, 2000) Pham had been able to meet different kinds of people. Some of whom had been like his old friends and some were total strangers to him. Every single conversation with them was like bits and pieces of puzzles that automatically bring itself in its place that makes up his identity. Pham needs no longer find where to put each piece into the right place because it involuntarily puts itself to where

Does the rotation of auditors improve the quality of auditing Essay - 5

Does the rotation of auditors improve the quality of auditing - Essay Example Auditing had never been influential and applicable as it is today. Each corporation feels the need to examine its accounts from time to time, and especially when change is about to occur, so that it can determine their correctness and fairness, as well as detect of any irregularity. Auditing is broad and can be conducted for systems, data, and finances which are of great concern in this context. Auditing can be described as an examination and verification of accounting data with an aim of establish the correctness and reliability of the accounting reports and statements (Shirin, 2009). However, numerous controversies exist over establishing a standard against which actual audit performances can be measured. Therefore, organizations may have difficulties in assessing the effectiveness and quality of their audit, even if it serves the purpose. Audit quality has been described by Fearnley et al as the â€Å"market assessed joint probability that a given auditor will both discover a bre ach in the client’s accounting system and report the breach† (2011, p. 2007). Organization’s committees and shareholders need enhanced audit quality for the sake of delivering appropriate organization audit results and opinions. Firm rotation of auditors has been campaigned for and applied in some countries as a way of improving audit quality. The issue of audit quality that auditors’ rotation attempts to address There are several factors that affect the quality of audit. Nowadays, clients want to be confident of the financial reports they get, to make future projections of the business. Internationally, various initiatives have been proposed to establish a standard or enforce some consistencies across borders, in how the auditors ought to accomplish the audit objective, and what financial statements clients should expect (ICAEW, 2010). The number of recently reported financial failures in organizations call for more accountability and undertaking of effec tive measures for countries, firms, and audit practitioners, whom are all affected in case of any unexpected undesirable effect after auditing. There have been cases of firms experiencing frauds and even bankruptcy after a repetitive auditing by specific auditors, while auditors are sometimes prevented from delivering certain quality audit results due to differences in countries’ regulations, economic incentives, their ability, and expertise. Considering the perceived audit failures, there is an urge for audit effectiveness and efficiency to enhance clients’ confidence in the quality of audit reports. This remains the greatest problem in quality control. Rotation of auditors is one of the strategies recommended, but still debatable over its success in promoting audit quality. Rotation of auditors The concept of auditors’ rotation is related to job rotation of employees, but unlike the later, which is intended to enhance motivation, the former has clear based obj ectives to impact on the quality of audits. Due to the established failure and fraud cases when a former auditor has been reemployed for a longer term by a specific client, companies avoid hiring similar auditing firms for a subsequent number of years to conduct their audits. The issue surfaced since the 90s and proposes that audit firms serve as client auditors for a certain period, then replaced by others. AICPA requirement proposes seven years of an auditor firm or auditor service, after which rotation occurs

Strategic management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Strategic management - Essay Example Unilever was one of the first to recognize the importance of strategic knowledge management, having accumulated extensive evidence on its development and implementation in a wide organizational context. The idea of knowledge creation and knowledge transfer is central for the whole paper. The literature on strategic knowledge management identifies these two key processes to be major components of knowledge management process. Both significantly influence organisation’s success. â€Å"All managers must manage knowledge. Knowledge must not only be gained, but shared throughout the organization. This ability to create and transfer knowledge will be the key to competitive success† (Higgins & Vincze, 1993). Both knowledge creation and transfer became even more indispensable to companies operating in modern global markets, as knowledge management and accelerated innovation emerged to be crucial success factors for global competition in the 21st century. (Cumming & Wilson, 2003 ) Von Krogh, Nonaka & Aben (2001) identified that the primary purpose of knowledge creation is to advance the company’s potential of creating innovation and to reduce the time span to the market success of new products / services introduced by the company. Usually knowledge creation is pursued using small-sized groups of 5-15 specialists that actually develop collective tacit knowledge through an extensive experience and discussion of new business processes, products, use of technologies, etc.

Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Performance Management - Essay Example The script shows that whether or not an employee manages to attain the assigned goals also depends upon the extent to which he/she has been facilitated in doing so by the top management. This is the aspect of performance management that is often underemphasized. Achieving company’s goals is not only a horizontal team effort on the part of the employees, but also a vertical team effort wherein top management and everybody done the line forms part of a team. This is a very interesting script. The fact that there are just two characters in it that conduct the dialogue with each other makes the scenario easier to comprehend. The script also provides an example of how peers can educate each other on important concepts like performance management and performance appraisal in a hardly 5-minute talk in the office environment. This not only improves their social connectivity and increases their knowledge, but also helps them develop rapport with each other so as to work productively in the form of

Letter to the crown and the judge of the court Assignment

Letter to the crown and the judge of the court - Assignment Example Hence, I promise never to get involved in such scenario again. I believe that the main objective of your department is to offer correction although there are some aspects of punishments attached to it. However, I believe that you consider the corrective mandate of the department more than its disciplinary requirement. I also believe that you value offering support to people who value living a descent life or making efforts to correct their mistakes. Currently I rely on your support to enable me walk through the road of change. Getting back my passport from your department would be a paramount support that would enable me to achieve the change that I desire. I acknowledge the existence of fears that I might flee out of the country due to the trouble that I got involved. However, I would like to bring to your consideration that I have no any plans to flee the country. In addition, I am committed to go through the entire judicial process for the interest of my Canadian citizenship and the plaintiff. Canada is not only my county of residence but also my home. Although I was not born in Canada, I have lived in the country since I was eight year old. I have also received all my education in Canadian schools and therefore all my investments are in the country. Fleeing from Canada would be like going to another planet since all my friends and family live in Canada. In addition my father who has special value and love for the country has invested over $200, 000 for our family to acquire full Canadian citizenship. Currently I am in the last stage of acquiring a permanent residence card and therefore your assistance would be vital. I hope that my request and regrets would find a place of consideration in your honoured court. I also appreciate and honour the assistance that you will accord me through the release of my passport. Your assistance would go a long way in consoling my aged father, worried friends, family members and

Strategic management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Strategic management - Essay Example Unilever was one of the first to recognize the importance of strategic knowledge management, having accumulated extensive evidence on its development and implementation in a wide organizational context. The idea of knowledge creation and knowledge transfer is central for the whole paper. The literature on strategic knowledge management identifies these two key processes to be major components of knowledge management process. Both significantly influence organisation’s success. â€Å"All managers must manage knowledge. Knowledge must not only be gained, but shared throughout the organization. This ability to create and transfer knowledge will be the key to competitive success† (Higgins & Vincze, 1993). Both knowledge creation and transfer became even more indispensable to companies operating in modern global markets, as knowledge management and accelerated innovation emerged to be crucial success factors for global competition in the 21st century. (Cumming & Wilson, 2003 ) Von Krogh, Nonaka & Aben (2001) identified that the primary purpose of knowledge creation is to advance the company’s potential of creating innovation and to reduce the time span to the market success of new products / services introduced by the company. Usually knowledge creation is pursued using small-sized groups of 5-15 specialists that actually develop collective tacit knowledge through an extensive experience and discussion of new business processes, products, use of technologies, etc.

Letter to the crown and the judge of the court Assignment

Letter to the crown and the judge of the court - Assignment Example Hence, I promise never to get involved in such scenario again. I believe that the main objective of your department is to offer correction although there are some aspects of punishments attached to it. However, I believe that you consider the corrective mandate of the department more than its disciplinary requirement. I also believe that you value offering support to people who value living a descent life or making efforts to correct their mistakes. Currently I rely on your support to enable me walk through the road of change. Getting back my passport from your department would be a paramount support that would enable me to achieve the change that I desire. I acknowledge the existence of fears that I might flee out of the country due to the trouble that I got involved. However, I would like to bring to your consideration that I have no any plans to flee the country. In addition, I am committed to go through the entire judicial process for the interest of my Canadian citizenship and the plaintiff. Canada is not only my county of residence but also my home. Although I was not born in Canada, I have lived in the country since I was eight year old. I have also received all my education in Canadian schools and therefore all my investments are in the country. Fleeing from Canada would be like going to another planet since all my friends and family live in Canada. In addition my father who has special value and love for the country has invested over $200, 000 for our family to acquire full Canadian citizenship. Currently I am in the last stage of acquiring a permanent residence card and therefore your assistance would be vital. I hope that my request and regrets would find a place of consideration in your honoured court. I also appreciate and honour the assistance that you will accord me through the release of my passport. Your assistance would go a long way in consoling my aged father, worried friends, family members and

Cultural Oppression Essay Example for Free

Cultural Oppression Essay Women has come a long way from being the gods of the feminist society, oppression from the paternal Roman Catholic, and the continuous struggle to uplift itself from the discrimination in out society. Therefore it is not correct to say that â€Å"The world has evolved in a huge way, but for the groups that remained oppressed it does not seem like evolution has even touched them. † It seems a very narrow way of putting the struggle of women from centuries of oppression when in fact before World War I there were no women in the military, no women in college, no women in office, and no women in the library. Same goes for the homosexuals. There are already four states that allow same sex marriage in the United States and the world is not so unforgiving 50 years ago when homosexuals where killed. Indeed, homosexuals and women have come a long way and it is rather fitting that we recognize them in their accomplishments in pursuing their common good. I agree with Miss Johnson. This society is so bent on discrimination based on color when in fact African Americans are just as able as Caucasians in getting every job done. As long as there are equal opportunities for both races then there won’t be some dumb Joe lying around. We claim to be the most advanced nation in the world but it seems we still have prehistoric traces of slavery in our society. We still think that just because African Americans came to America as slaves then they are a backward race. What the people of America should remember that the very same slaves built this nation with their bare hands and they wouldn’t be slaves had we not made them that way. It seems that we have a double standard when we talk about freedom and liberty for all Americans. That shouldn’t be so because history has proven that it’s never a war of colors, it’s only a war of interests and power. The author mentioned about the struggling African Americans who are in the upper class. Well, money can’t erase prejudice from people especially the prejudice that is rooted in our history. That’s why the weak should fight for its liberation because nobody will save them from it but themselves. Reference

Knowledge Management Models And Frameworks Commerce Essay

Knowledge Management Models And Frameworks Commerce Essay The purpose of this paper is to critically review the various knowledge management models and frameworks. The review found that various knowledge management models and frameworks varies in perspectives ranging from the basic assumption of the articulation and transfer of tacit and explicit knowledge to the more complex and complicated assumption that knowledge is intellectual capital and it is mechanistic in perspective as well as an important asset that has to be managed efficiently for firms success. In this paper, knowledge management models are divided into three categories: knowledge category models, intellectual capital models, and socially constructed models. Besides, two knowledge management frameworks will be discussed in this paper. Finally, a KM model and framework is tentatively suggested to act as a useful guide for further research and organizational application. Introduction Nowadays, the world is fully experiencing an era, namely: knowledge age or the knowledge economy. In knowledge economy, knowledge is the crucial commodity due to the rapidly technological advancement. The technological innovations are eliminating the gap between competing companies and the collective knowledge of the employees become the key factor in producing innovative and competitive products or services (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). Since previously managers did not encourage diffusion and sharing of knowledge among employees, changing in mindset is required for managing the knowledge effectively. The knowledge-driven activities in organizations and of the broader economic and social life lead to the management of knowledge become very important (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). In general, this managerial activity has been known as Knowledge Management (KM). Previous research on knowledge management indicates the existence of various definitions of knowledge management. According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), knowledge management is the capability of a company to create new knowledge, disseminate it throughout the organization and embody it in products, services, and systems. Duffy (1999) defines knowledge management as the identification, growth and effective application of an organisations critical knowledge. Knowledge management has been defined in another term, which is an organized and explicit process to generate, renew, and apply knowledge to maximize an organizations knowledge-related effectiveness and returns from its knowledge assets (Wiig, 1997). Alavi and Leidner (1999) define knowledge management as a systemic and organizationally specified process for acquiring, organizing, and communicating both tacit and explicit knowledge of employees so that other employees may make use of it to be more effective and productive in thei r work. Besides, ODell et al., (1998) define knowledge management as a conscious strategy of getting the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and helping people share and put information into action in ways that strive to improve organizational performance. For instance, Beckman (1999) define knowledge management as the formalization of and access to experience, knowledge and expertise that create new capabilities, enable superior performance, encourage innovation and enhance customer value. In general, KM is the process of creating, storing, distributing, and applying knowledge. By reviewing the significance of knowledge management and the complexity of its nature, it is timely to try to understand the latest theories underlying knowledge and knowledge management. Hence, this paper will critically study the latest models and frameworks of knowledge management and discuss on the assumptions and views of each model and framework. The aim of this paper is to examine the current understanding of the theory and practice of the emerging field of knowledge management by critically evaluating existing knowledge management models and frameworks. Therefore, employers or practitioners in organizations can understand their concepts and improved approaches can be developed and applied to organization and to those who need to work and implement knowledge management. This paper will begin by presenting the aims and objectives and followed with a short discussion on the types of knowledge. This is followed with the discussion on some of the existing knowledge management models and frameworks. Types of Knowledge In todays competitive business environment, only the knowledge of an organization can provide the basis for organizational renewal and sustainable competitive advantages. Organizational knowledge can be classified into two distinctive types of knowledge: explicit and tacit. According to Polanyi (1967), explicit knowledge is the knowledge which is easily to formalize, transfer, and store; documented, articulated into formal language, formally expressible and easily to communicate; tacit knowledge is pertaining to ideas, feelings, and individual experience, which is more complicated and difficult to share with each others. Explicit knowledge is the fact and can be codified and transmitted in a systematic and formal language. It is usually data, which is internal to an organization and can be easily collected. Tacit knowledge is the personal experiences, context-specific knowledge that is difficult to formalize record or articulate. It actually resides in the heads of the people, behavior and perception (Frid, 2000). Examples are intuitions, hunches, insights, beliefs and values. Both tacit and explicit knowledge are needed for an organization to achieve greater performance (Sanchez et. al. 1996). Knowledge Management Models and Frameworks Knowledge Category Models These types of model categorize knowledge into discrete elements. One of the most renowned KM models fits into this category, the Knowledge Spiral model by Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995). This model presents a high level conceptual representation of the knowledge dimensions, namely tacit and explicit knowledge. The model makes a number of assumptions, namely: 1. Tacit knowledge can be transferred through a process of socialization (everyday comradeship) to become the tacit knowledge of others top left quadrant 2. Tacit knowledge can become explicit knowledge through a process of externalization (formalizing a body of knowledge) top right quadrant 3. Explicit knowledge can be transferred into tacit knowledge in others through a process of internalization (translating theories into practice) bottom left quadrant 4. Explicit knowledge can be transferred to explicit knowledge in others through a process of combination (combining existing theories) -bottom right quadrant. One criticism of the model is that knowledge transfer in organizations is much more complicated and convoluted than this simple matrix suggests. The model also assumes an integration of tacit and explicit knowledge; often this is not the case. This model is shown in figure no. 1 below. A simple but more elaborate version of Nonakas model is shown in figure no. 2 (Hedlund and Nonaka, 1993). This model assumes there are four different levels of carriers, or agents, of knowledge in organizations, namely the individual, the group, the organization and the inter-organizational domain (customers, suppliers, competitors, etc.). The above model is helpful by relating the carriers to the types of knowledge; it remains problematic in that it assumes the carriers, like the knowledge, can be simply separated. Another example of a knowledge category model is that of Boisot, (1998), as shown in figure no. 3. Boisots model considers knowledge as codified or uncodified, diffused or undiffused, within an organization. Boisot uses the term codified to refer to knowledge that can be readily prepared for transmission purposes (e.g. financial data). The term uncodified refers to knowledge that cannot be easily prepared for transmission purposes (e.g. experience). The term diffused refers to knowledge that is readily shared while undiffused refers to knowledge that is not readily shared. The model presents the following characteristics: 1. Knowledge categorized as both codified and undiffused is referred to as propriety knowledge. In this case, knowledge is prepared for transmission but is deliberately restricted to a selectively small population, on a need to know basis (e.g. projected profits, share price issues) top left quadrant 2. Knowledge that is relatively uncodified and undiffused is referred to as personal knowledge (e.g. perceptions, insights, experiences) bottom left quadrant knowledge that is both codified and diffused is referred to as public knowledge (e.g. journals, books, libraries) top right quadrant Knowledge which is relatively diffused but also uncodified is labeled common sense bottom right quadrant. Boisot, (1998) considers such knowledge as being built up slowly by a process of socialization, harboring customs and intuition. There are few similarities between Nonakas model and Boisots model. For example, Nonakas categorization of explicit and tacit knowledge has a degree of correspondence with Boisots reference to codified and uncodified knowledge. The horizontal dimension relates to the spread or diffusion of knowledge across the organization in both models. However, Boisots model experiences the same limitations as Nonakas model in that codified and uncodified are but two discrete categories of knowledge. In addition, the idea of diffused knowledge is rather general and it is not clear if it includes incorporating knowledge within the organization, as well as disseminating it. Figure No. 3-Knowledge Category Model (Boisot, 1998) Intellectual Capital Models Management gurus such as Drucker (1993) and Brooking (1997) and practitioner icons such as Edvinsson, (1997) elucidated the notion of Intellectual Capital (IC). Knowledge and capital have been linked together for many years. Knowledge is being capitalized as a resource comparable to land or oil. However, we also need to focus on the intangible elements which knowledge contains such as employee skills, experiences, patients, copyrights, brands, licensing opportunities, research and development, innovative use of assets such as databases, etc. (Quintas et al, 1997). As these type of elements are not normally recorded on the traditional organizational balance sheet they are referred to Intellectual Assets; hence the term Intellectual Capital. KM is actively concerned with the strategic outlook and operational tactics required for managing human centered, intellectual assets (Brooking, 1997). According to Peters (1992), KM can affect intellectual capital or as recognizing or rediscovering assets that the organization are not using to full potential, ultimately employees. As these approaches imply that the key areas of KM are the management of IC it is worth reviewing a typical IC model. The model, shown below in figure no. 5, is the Intellectual Capital model from Skandia Insurance which is adopted from Chase (1997), and Roos and Roos (1997). According to Edvinsson and Malone, (1997) intellectual capital concsists the applied experience, organizational technology, customer relationships and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive advantage in the market. One problem that can be associated with this model is the adoption of a scientific approach to knowledge. This is evident through the classification of knowledge as a commodity linking it to organization capital. This view of intellectual capital ignores the political and social aspects of KM. KM can be decomposed into objective elements rather than being socio-political phenomena from the view of intellectual capital. This is similar to the Nonaka and Takeuchi, (1995) approach. As befits a new area of inquiry, much analytical work is focused on categorizing, mapping and measuring of knowledge types and processes. Although this is helpful, the epistemological basis of the field cannot be ignored (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999). Hence, we need to embrace socially constructed models of KM. Figure No. 4-Intellectual Capital Model of KM (Chase, 1997) Socially Constructed Models This group of models assumes a wide definition of knowledge viewing it as being intrinsically linked within the social and learning processes of the organization. KM is concerned with the construction, capture, interpretation, embodiment, dissemination and use of knowledge. These components are represented in Demerests (1997) Knowledge Management model. The model is developed from the original work of Clark and Staunton, (1989) and Nonaka and Takeuchi, (1995). It can be compared to that of Jordan and Jones, (1997) who speak of knowledge acquisition, problem solving, dissemination, ownership and storage and that of Kruizinga et al. (1997) who include knowledge policy, infrastructure and culture. Firstly, the model emphasizes the construction of knowledge within the organization. The model assumes that constructed knowledge is then embodied. Next the embodied knowledge is disseminated throughout the organization. Ultimately the knowledge is used to gain economic value with regard to organizational outputs. The black arrows in figure no. 5 show the primary flow direction while the white arrows show the more recursive flows. Figure No. 5 -Knowledge Management Model Demerest, (1997) Demerests model is attractive in that it does not assume any given definition of knowledge but rather invites a more holistic approach to knowledge construction. However, it does imply a simplistic procession approach to the flow of knowledge transfer, while in reality this may be extremely rapid and circulatory. To overcome this gap a slightly modified version of Demerests model has been developed, figure no. 6. Firstly the model emphasizes the construction of knowledge within an organization where either a scientific or social paradigm may be adopted. The scientific view of knowledge takes a knowledge is truth view (Morgan, 1986). This view considers that knowledge is a body of facts and rational laws thus promoting a non-personal view of knowledge, skills and tasks (Lave and Wenger, 1991). On the other hand the social view of knowledge is concerned with the social and learning processes within an organization. However, this approach assumes that knowledge construction is inequality, conflict, domination, subordination and manipulation influences as well as more traditional behavioral questions associated with efficiency and motivation (Alvesson and Wilmott, 1996). Thus social knowledge construction is a dynamic process of contextuality rather than the assimilation of a body of facts. In th e McAdam and McCreedys (1999) model depicted in figure no. 6, knowledge construction is not limited to scientific inputs through explicit programmes but includes a process of social interaction. The implications of this broader concept of knowledge construction must be reflected in the embodiment/dissemination of knowledge as part of the organizations KM approach. There is little point in widening the concept of knowledge construction only to limit the embodiment and dissemination techniques used or to force existing techniques onto new knowledge. Attempting to do so will lead to disappointing results, frustration and a negative view to KM caused by the mismatch between conception and application. Knowledge usage must also be reflected via the knowledge initiatives installed in the organization. Demerest (1997) describes use (as deployed in figure no. 6) as the production of commercial value for the customer. While increasing commercial value is a key objective of KM, it is not the only objective. Therefore knowledge use must be employed through the application of a complementary approach for emancipatory enhancements and organization outputs. This will permit the organization to be viewed and reformed from different perspectives that will facilitate continuous innovation, thus creating the ultimate business benefits for the organization as a whole. While the interconnecting vectors (black arrows) show the primary flow of activity, more recursive arrows are added to reflect the circulating nature of activity flows, thus depicting that KM is not a simple sequential process. Figure No. 6-Modified Version of Demerests Knowledge Management Model (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999) Knowledge Management Frameworks Stankosky and Baldanza (2001) developed a knowledge management framework which addresses enabling factors such as learning, culture, leadership, organization and technology (refer to figure no. 7). This framework presents that knowledge management covers a wide range of disciplines that include cognitive science, communication, individual and organizational behavior, psychology, finance, economics, human resource, management, strategic planning, system thinking, process reengineering, system engineering, computer technologies and software and library science. This framework consists four major foundations of an organization which is important for knowledge management are leadership, organization structure, technology infrastructure and learning. The role of leadership is practicing strategic planning and systems thinking approaches, making best use of resources, fostering a culture that encourages open dialogue and team learning, and for encouraging and rewarding risk taking, learning and knowledge sharing. Organization structure should facilitate personal interactions and support communities of practice to capture tacit and explicit knowledge within the organization. Besides, organizational structure should facilitate trust among people within the organization and encourage free exchange of knowledge. Technology infrastructure allows exchange of information without formal structures. Technology infrastructure should enhance the efficient and effective capture of both tacit and explicit knowledge. It should also support knowledge sharing in the entire organization. Lastly, learning is responsible for managing information in order to build enterprise wide knowledge and use that knowledge to organizational learning, change and performance improvement. Figure No. 7-Basic Disciplines Underlying Knowledge Management and its Enabling Factors (Stankosky and Baldanza , 2001) Karadesh et al. (2009) developed a knowledge management framework that emphasizes on developing phases such as knowledge infrastructure, knowledge combination, knowledge filtering, knowledge repository, knowledge sharing, knowledge application, and finally, knowledge performance across the KM process (refer to figure no. 8). The first element is knowledge infrastructure, which relies on building the proper culture for Knowledge Management System and establishes the awareness of the importance of KM among the individuals in the organization. The second element is knowledge combination that functions as a temporary repository of collected information from the infrastructure phase. The third element is knowledge evaluation which is used to assess the knowledge based on the value; accuracy and relevance after the knowledge have been combined from different sources (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). Knowledge filtering is the fourth element that prepares knowledge to be stored in the next phase, after going through classification, categorization and organization. The fifth element is knowledge repository that functions as storage for the knowledge collected in the past stages. It also can be viewed as organization memory and retention of knowledge assets. Knowledge sharing is a core process in the process of the KM that transfers and shares knowledge among the individuals in the organization. Knowledge application is the seventh element that applies and represents information to knowledge seekers in appropriate matter. The last element is knowledge performance which is used to evaluate every KM system, process, performance, and impact of KM. It is performing according to the organization goals and objectives. Figure No. 8-Conceptual Framework for Knowledge Management Process (Karadesh et al., 2009) Conclusion The review of existing knowledge management models and frameworks has seen a wide spectrum of viewpoints. Knowledge management has been seen from the categorical view in which knowledge are categorized into discrete elements as seen in Boisot, Nonaka, and Nonaka and Hedlunds models to the more complicated and complex perspective of knowledge that is mechanistic and socially constructed orientation (McAdam and McCreedys, 1999). Moreover, these knowledge management models have made reference to: first, the process of managing the flow knowledge; second, categorization models are mechanistic; third, the intellectual capital model assumed that intellectual capital are crucial assets in organization and should be manage efficiently for firms success; fourth, Demerests model is intrinsically linked with the social and learning process within organizations; McAdam and McCreedys model is slightly modified from Demerests model, which seeks to address the limitations by explicitly showing the influence of both social and scientific paradigms of knowledge construction, and extends the use element to cover both business and employee benefits. Stankosky and Baldanzas knowledge management framework emphasized that leadership, organization structure, technology infrastructure and learning are important foundations for knowledge management in an organization; finally, Karadesh et al.s knowledge management framework represents with extensive and detailed processes and tends to provide guidelines for executing KM successfully, save time and efforts and to avoid inaccuracies. Even though knowledge management models and frameworks have evolved from time to time, basically the models and frameworks provide a way of transforming managerial activities and guiding managerial efforts in managing knowledge in the organizations. The KM model and framework that are suggested to act as a useful guide for further research and organizational application is McAdam and McCreedys model and Karadesh et al.s framework. McAdam and McCreedys model combines scientific and socially constructed knowledge, and also the uses/benefits of KM are viewed as both emancipatory and as business oriented. Karadesh et al.s framework provides a broadest analysis of KM process that can be used to foster the development of organization knowledge and enhance the organizational impact of individuals throughout the organizations. Therefore, it is suggested that this model and framework could act as a useful guide for further research and literature evaluation in the area of knowledge management.